THE IMPACT OF MEDIA ON SPORT by 67K

(Please note that this original article includes quotes from and references to a number of other publications, as listed below. These have been appropriately indicated within the body of the text.)

The impact of media upon sport is substantial and varied, from alterations made to the equipment, match times, venues, to financial changes which impact on all levels of sport. Media has always had a massive effect on sports, but with the increasing importance of media in all walks of life, its impact on sport is increasing proportionally. However it is not a parasitic relationship, sport impacts upon media to a similar extent. "Both television and sports have grown rich and influential as a result of their partnership."

Sports and the media have coexisted since the advent of newspapers, onto radio and through into television. However it was "the growth of television as a significant cultural form during the 1960’s that put the relationship between sport and the media on the public agenda. Television increased the influence upon sport because of its accessibility to the mass population. Suddenly instead of watching games from the stadium, you could watch from the comfort of your own home, for a fee of course. So to the media sport is relatively low cost, high appeal programming. In return sport receives funding, advertisement and coverage of its big events and major stars, in turn impacting upon the popularity of the sport. Cashmore says ‘if ever there was a marriage made in heaven it was between television and sports. The commercial success of each was almost directly attributable to the other." This association however is more of a ‘ménage a trois’, with the sponsors, that finance the relationship, as the final party. All three parties are inter-reliant, sport provides the events, the media provides the coverage and the sponsors provide the finance. Without one, the chain disintegrates; it is a symbiotic relationship requiring all three inputs to function efficiently, and most importantly, profitably. The sponsors, mainly major companies, pay large amounts in order to associate themselves with a particular club or league, or to be involved with a show or televised event. In addition the television companies pay fees to the clubs and leagues in order to secure the rights to highlights and live matches. So we can see that already this relationship has a large impact upon sport, providing finance to the leagues and individual clubs. This new wealth has also "allowed top British clubs to compete more effectively for star players with their larger continental rivals which, in turn has helped maintain spectators' enthusiasm for the game", and furthermore has contributed to further sponsorship and therefore augmented funding.

“The media have come to play a significant role in the constant reformulation of the term ‘sport’. Our every sense of the meaning of the category sport has been shaped by the emergence of the sporting press and television sport." So the media’s biggest impact on the sporting world is actually determining what constitutes a sport? It has come to almost be recognized that an activity is only a sport if it receives television coverage. Media coverage of an event can make or break it, if a medium covered more Women’s football, would it increase in popularity? Sports on television can help viewers get a ‘taste’ for them and perhaps inspire them to experience the live event. The media can determine what or who you watch; it can alter your perception of a player or team. The media’s level of influence upon sport is unimaginable.

Sport's relationship with the media has many positive aspects. These include the mass media’s ability to reach the general public and introduce them into the game. How many new football fans have been created since BSkyB started showing live Premiership matches? How much revenue has that earned the clubs? Television also allows the public to access a variety of sports, particularly sports from other nations. In particular hugely popular American played sports such as Basketball, Hockey and Gridiron are now easily accessible from all over the world via an array of media. Also "television allows access to sport to be made available to a mass audience and it can provide access for the old, the infirm, and those displaced from their home town." The impact of the media can be seen here, it provides access to the masses, allows those that could not usually view live sport to do so, which can only be a positive influence. However there are worries that this trend could eventually go too far, and we could see in this country the decline in attendances that have been experienced in countries such as Spain and Italy. In fact "it can be argued that television coverage of football deprives the viewer of the freedom and the experience of the live spectator." So are there indications that live sport can have a negative effect on match attendances? In other countries football attendances have declined, but so far there is no indication that this trend will arrive in England.

It could also be argued that "TV coverage of sport extends the power of fans...’ in that it provides the television viewer with access to slow motion replays, multiple camera angles and 'expert' commentary on the events unfolding in front of the spectators' eyes. The mass media allow the fans to access a variety of different views, analysis and opinions. This can impact on sport in a number of ways. It can be beneficial as the fans are involved as never before, they can follow a single player for the entire game. They can view highlights during the match. There is an array of options at their fingertips that have never been experienced before, all of which add to the overall enjoyment of the sporting event. However replays on television, and reports via other mediums can lead to a situation of trial by television. Incidents within games can be highlighted to an extent that the player is already deemed guilty by the mass media and public, by the time the relevant authorities judge him/her. This can have an impact on the punishment they may receive, which can in turn have an effect upon the clubs successes or otherwise. The media is also incredibly fickle, highlighting some incidents, whilst ignoring or playing down others.

The media has enforced several ‘cosmetic’ changes within sporting events. Mainly to suit a television audience, these range from trivial changes such as names on the back of players shirts to make them identifiable to commentators and fans watching via media. Large numbers are now also pinned to runner in athletics so that commentators can distinguish them. There have also been changes in the equipment used by sportsmen and women. In tennis, for example, the ball colour changed from white to yellow, to benefit television audiences. A white ball would be more visible for the players themselves, so the change of colour puts them at a disadvantage. Media coverage also impacts upon the times that sport is viewed, gone are the days of traditional 3pm Saturday afternoon kick-offs in football. Now the kick offs are spread across the week in order to be televised. This season in 16 Premiership matches, Manchester United have had one ‘traditional’ 3pm kick-off. This of course impacts upon the players. There are more games in a shorter amount of time. Players fatigue quickly, causing loss of form, impacting upon the clubs fortunes. Some fans are unable to travel to 8pm kick-offs on a Wednesday so they stay at home, choosing to watch from their armchairs. During the football World Cup in 1994 the television companies attempted to introduce quarters instead of the usual halves. This was in an attempt to fit in more advertisements. In Gridiron every stoppage is filled with an advertisement break even if it is less than thirty seconds long. This disrupts the flow of the game and the experience of the viewer.

The media has impacted upon how players are viewed. Media’s involvement in sports has resulted in "sport’s mutating into an entertainment medium on par with show business." Without the intense media interest in sport would those that compete have ever reached the level of celebrity that they have achieved? The media representation of players is such that they can determine what a nation thinks of them. The English press particularly is renowned for ‘building players up, only to knock them down.’ For instance after David Beckham’s dismissal in World Cup ’98, the media instigated what was effectively a ‘hate campaign’ against him. Now he is a media darling and can do little wrong in their eyes, or the eyes of a fawning public. Media coverage has created ‘superstars’, more celebrity than sportsperson. They adorn the front pages as well as back and appear in glossy magazines.

Perhaps the most serious aspect of media’s impact upon sports and how they are viewed is media representation of sport and its performers and how that can effect aspiring sportsmen, women and the viewers. Barnett has suggested that "television overlooks issues of politics and controversy involved in football, and moreover it is suggested that in many cases television helps generate racial and sexual stereotypes through sport." Do the media misrepresent athletes? Do the media contribute to stereotyping? Tudor believes this to be the case and has suggested that "television commentaries commonly use ethnic and racial stereotypes to describe foreign and international players." So do racial stereotypes still exist in modern media? There is still the implication that some African football players are tactically incapable and focus on women participants' looks or personalities rather than their sporting prowess. Of course, unfortunately, there is also still direct discrimination on our screens, a recent example being Ron Atkinson’s racist invective against Chelsea FC’s Marcel Desailly. The media’s representation can impact upon the sport in question because it can affect public opinion of that sport. Media representation of a sport can also effect, to an extent, who plays the game. "Apparently positive images of black achievement reinforce the stereotype of black athleticism, and so limit the perceptions of teachers and coaches about other accomplishments." So it can be deduced that media representation has an effect not only upon the men and women that participate in it but on wider society that are influenced by sports and sporting figures.

It is clear that the popular media have an effect all over sport, from the way it is run, to the way it is played, to the way it is watched. These effects are both beneficial to sport and hinder it. What is clear though is that this is a mutually beneficially relationship. Without each other they would not have reached the levels they have done "TV has made sports a multi-billion dollar industry. In the process, athletes have been transformed from mere heroic figures into highly skilled, highly paid commodities." One certainty is that the two will continue to impact upon each other, for good and bad, for the foreseeable future.

References:-

Barnett, S. (1990). Games & Sets: The Changing Face of Sport on Television. London: BFI
Horne, J., Tomlinson, A., & Whannel, G. (1999). Understanding Sport - An introduction to the Sociological and Cultural analysis of sport. London: Routledge
Maguire, J., Jarvie, G., Mansield, L., & Bradley, J. (2002). Sport Worlds, A Sociological Perspective. USA: Human Kinetics
Sage, G. (1998). Power and Ideology in American Sport - A critical perspective (2nd Ed.). USA: Human Kinetics
Cashmore, E. (2000). Making sense of sports. London: Routledge
Whannel, G. (2000). Sport and the Media. In Coakley, J., & Dunning, E. (Eds.),
Handbook of sports studies (pp.291-308). London: Sage
Williams, J. (1994a). Sport, postmodernism & global TV. In S.Earnsham (Eds.) Postmodern Surroundings. Amsterdam: Rodopi
Sir Norman Chester Centre for Football Research. (2002). British Football on Television Retrieved 5th December 2004, from www.le.ac.uk/fo/resources/factsheets/fs8.htm

All copyright Matthew Rose and the University of Portsmouth (© 2004)